Water is essential for life. Not only is it a vital nutrient, but it is also involved in many physiological functions, such as digestion and absorption, thermoregulation, lubrication of joints and organs, and elimination of metabolic waste, and it is an essential part of blood and body tissues. About 70% of a bird’s weight is water, so any reduction in intake or loss of moisture will have a profound impact on overall performance. This is especially true for chicks arriving on the farm. Clean, cool, potable water must be available as soon as the birds are placed and remain available for the remainder of their time on the farm. Frequently, a change in water consumption is the earliest warning sign of a problem in the poultry house. It is strongly recommended that each house have its own independent water meter, and daily monitoring is undertaken.

Generally, water intake is approximately twice feed intake, though it can be much higher in hot conditions. As birds age and their feed intake increases, water consumption also increases. This increase in demand must be met by ensuring adequate drinker availability and by increasing the water flow rate as birds age. Water intake in males is higher than in females, mainly due to greater body size and associated metabolic demands.

A bird’s demand for water will increase by 6–7% per 1°C above an ambient temperature of 21°C. Not only will environmental temperature affect consumption, but water temperature will as well. Birds prefer cool water, and water intake will decline if the water gets too hot. If water temperatures routinely exceed 24°C, then consideration should be given to how the water is stored and whether it may need to be cooled.

Most modern poultry houses utilize nipple lines, which reduce labor, maintain water cleanliness, and minimize disease spread; however, these systems require effective maintenance. Lines must be set to the correct height and pressure for the bird’s age and size. They must also be routinely flushed, maintained, and cleaned.

The flow rate (or water pressure) in the lines must be set to ensure the water supply is sufficient to meet the maximum daily water intake. For young chicks, this will be relatively low and will increase as the birds age. Houses with higher pressures tend to encourage additional eating and drinking, resulting in higher initial growth, but are more prone to leaks, water wasteage by the birds, and poor-quality litter, which can cause welfare challenges. Low flow rates, on the other hand, especially when stocking density is high, and birds per nipple are constrained, can result in lower growth rates. As a rough guide, weeks of age x 7 + 20 ml/minute can be used as an initial estimate of flow requirements.

For farms with bell drinkers, ensure they are emptied and cleaned daily to prevent the buildup of organic matter. As with the nipple lines, the height and pressure in these drinkers must be constantly checked.

Minerals excreted by the kidneys promote moisture loss. Excess levels of minerals or even protein, via deamination, in the diet can lead to high water excretion. Sodium, potassium, and chloride are all known to increase drinking and wet droppings. The amount of sodium in the water should be taken into account when formulating the diets to avoid excess sodium on the farm. Potassium is usually not an issue unless high levels of soy are used in the diet, especially in high-protein starter diets. Any chloride issues can typically be addressed by replacing a proportion of the salt in the diet with sodium bicarbonate.

The quality of the water supplied to the farm should be routinely monitored, especially if the water supply is from a bore well, well, or dam, as water quality can change dramatically with the season. Table 1 shows the water quality criteria for poultry.

The cleanliness of the drinking system should be assessed during the flock.  Make sure that the line is flushed before sampling to avoid excessive organic matter, and sample at the last nipple. A structured water sanitation, and line-cleaning program is needed to control both waterborne bacterial contamination and biofilm proliferation within the lines.  While bacteria in the water can directly affect bird performance and reduce the effectiveness of vaccination or medication, biofilm formation provides a persistent reservoir for microbial growth and can reduce the flow rate. A chlorine program that delivers 3–5 ppm of free chlorine at the nipple, or UV sanitation, can help control bacterial contamination.  Bacterial control is more challenging in operations using open drinking systems. These systems require more frequent cleaning, regular water replacement, and closer monitoring of water sanitation. Between flocks, all water pipes should be physically or chemically treated to remove biofilm and mineral buildup.

A clean water supply should be available to the chicks as soon as they are placed on the farm. Any restriction on water intake can reduce flock performance. Many factors can influence water intake, including bird age and sex, house and water temperatures, and drinker type. It is critical that the microbial load and physical quality of the water are monitored and corrective action is taken where needed to ensure optimal bird performance.

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